This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International Licence. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". 2023 Course Guru S.L.U. Speaking to a WAUC member named Tariq whose university was having trouble with the British authorities, she advised him to register it in Mississippi: Then you should be able to use the name university, she said. This was another of the techniques developed by Maxine Asher at her American World University. [5] Contents 1 Academic degrees Answer (1 of 2): Hi, Texila American University Group and IAU-UNESCO listed Universidad Central de Nicaragua (UCN) (English name: Central University of Nicaragua) have signed an agreement, to collaborate academically, to offer various programs from Bachelors to Doctoral levels and to work in the. It specialises in education, research and knowledge within the fields of business, technology, health care and education/social education. It is a private institution and authorized by the National Council of Universities (CNU). I forget if Steve Levicoff called them a diploma mill or a degree mill? UCN became active in 1998. International Association of Universities also listed UCN in the international handbook of accredited universities published by the United Nations. This article was first published by Culturico on 7 November 2020. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UClhHAGWm4Wdldcx2DouoEvA. Express burials raise fears that Nicaragua is hiding a coronavirus tragedy, Nicaraguas Ortega is strangling La Prensa, one of Latin Americas most storied newspapers, Spies, harassment, death threats: the Catholic Church in Nicaragua says its being targeted by the government. MANAGUA, Nicaragua Nicaraguas authoritarian government has stripped several universities of their permission to operate in what analysts called a sweeping attack on higher education and an escalation of the repressive tactics that have driven the country toward dictatorship. The Central University offers courses related to the fields: Accounting & Finance Architecture CiviI & Structural Engineering Medicine Where is Central University located? Latest ranking updates related to universities in Nicaragua. Even minor financial shellackings at maybe $200-500 per. Many countries have officially-recognised open universities where much of the teaching is done online, with the aim of helping people from disadvantaged backgrounds gain a qualification while earning an income. This institution also has branch campuses in the following locations: Jinotepe, Estel. How much does it cost to go to university in Nicaragua? Students can obtain a doctorate by writing a thesis in no more than six months and not less than three months. The university was founded in 1918, we offer all programs jointly with Taurida University, up to Ph.D. Universidad Central de Nicaragua (NICARAGUA) founded in 1998. Eighty percent of degree students at the Danish Aaalborg Academy have an Arab nationality, according to its website. While its possible that some students are tricked into believing they have found an easy way of gaining a qualification, its hard to imagine that most are unaware of being complicit in a scam. ). So far, though, it has only two signatories Norway and Nicaragua. Worthless degrees from the Bay Ridge University are promoted on Facebook by an account called Go Degree which posts in Arabic and uses Libyan and Egyptian contact numbers. TAU offers full-time programs in MD-Medicine, Nursing, Pharmacy and other Allied Health Science programs. It is nationally accredited and recognized by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Nicaragua via the Council of National Universities (Consejo Nacional de Universidades) in official government session No. South Central Louisiana State University. Beat up. Last edited: Dec 30, 2022. Licensing, accreditation, obtaining qualified professors, writing catalogues and handbooks can also be provided. The universities said they had fulfilled all necessary requirements. Indias NBA wasnt established until 1994 and there are said to be many working in Kuwait who obtained their certificates before it existed. Providing high-quality hostel accommodation in the heart of the capital, YHA London Central offers comfort and convenience. It turns out that you can't actually party with your professors down at the bayou, and you're never going to eat fried alligator with Adam Sandler (wellat least probably not). You finish your SMC doctorate and get your SMC award. And they just might. Any new institution will have positive and negative impacts. In more than 20 countries the websites of recognised academic institutions have .ac as a suffix in their domain name. Consejo Nacional de Universidades, Nicaragua, Tip: search for Central University of Nicaragua's accreditations with the uniRank Search Engine. Premedical Diploma (PMD) is an innovative program that targets students wishing to pursue Doctor of Medicine program which is offered at 4 years duration in universities, for students with Bachelors or Bachelor Equivalent programs. A . I am Assurance Partner with PwC with over 23 years of experience. HEDD has a secondary role in combating degree fraud and it holds data on more than 240 institutions that have been identified as bogus, but its main purpose is to provide a simple way of authenticating academic credentials. An advertisement for Oslo International University explains that its certificates can be issued with approval stamps from the Norwegian foreign ministry, the justice ministry and the embassy of the recipients home country. The lesser schools involved? See all 4 rankings where National University of Engineering is listed. It's issued for $3,000. 2822 according to law. All the degrees, diplomas and certification issued by the Brampton International University are accredited and fully recognized and can be verified . Texila American University (TAU) Distance and Online Program and UNESCO-IAU listed Universidad Central de Nicaragua (UCN) (English name: Central University of Nicaragua) have signed an agreement to collaborate academically and also in the area of scientific research. Degrees at a distance Professor and School Director: Naim Kapucu, Ph.D., MPM. Of fake degrees and journals - The inconvenient conversation African universities must have. The Central American University (UCA) is a non-profit private capital center of Nicaragua, also known as UCA. Discussion in 'Accreditation Discussions (RA, DETC, state approva' started by Rich Douglas, Nov 21, 2021. I haven't been nearly as active in this diploma mill stuff the last decade but, IIRC, Breyer State University was an "iffy" joint from like 20 years ago or so. For example, the institution issuing the degree must be officially accredited in the relevant country and the period of study and number of units in the course must be no less than for traditional methods of study. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. 10-1998, and approved by the Assembly of the Republic Decree No. UCN was founded in 1997. SMCU will forward all required documentation to UCN. International Association of Universities. He has worked for several years in development cooperation in Mesoamerica and served as visiting professor at the University of Cordoba, Spain. Vision To be recognized as a leader committed to excellence in higher education, research and innovation that meets the aspirations of the global community. [2] [9] [10] It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from . In many cases their actual teaching is minimal just enough to keep up the pretence that they are not simply selling degrees and theres no assurance of educational standards because unlike recognised universities they have not been through a proper accreditation process. By clicking Accept All, you consent to the use of ALL the cookies. Having a European base gives such organisations a veneer of respectability, but they typically rely on promotion by agents in the target countries. The demonstrations ignited mass anti-government protests. Subscribe to our channel for the latest updates on Russias war in Ukraine. Popular University of Nicaragua. Thus Oxford University the real one in England is oxford.ac.uk but oxford.ac would be a fake in Ascension Island. They are life-long learning programs for those who want education and titles without breaking the bank and can be completed much faster with autonomy. The school is registered with the National Accreditation Council of Guyana and received accreditation from the Caribbean Accreditation Authority for Education in Medicine and other Health Professions in 2023. The Central University of Nicaragua (Spanish: Universidad Central de Nicaragua - UCN)) was founded in 1998. The Professor overseeing the program says that UCN is well aware of the challenges Americans face with this, particularly in certain states, and that they routinely tailor the program for those students. Universidad Central de Nicaragua UCN Semaforos del Zumen 3 C. abajo (oeste), 1 C. al lago (norte) + 505 2279-1160 + 505 2269-3103 Lic. Reasonable rates.. Desperation. Besides making it easier for people to prove their credentials, digital systems reduce the scope for fraud while disregarding qualifications from bogus institutions. Azteca University has its main . Performance cookies are used to understand and analyze the key performance indexes of the website which helps in delivering a better user experience for the visitors. The eminent anti-racist Jewish This is the gravest attack on institutions of higher education in the history of Nicaragua, and probably in the history of Central America, Ernesto Medina, the former rector of the countrys largest university, the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, said in a Facebook message. I am currently the Managing Partner of the Assurance (Audit) Practice at PwC Nicaragua. Nicaragua also has the "youngest" population in Central America, with about 50% its of people under the age of eighteen and about 40% of the population under the age of fourte en. In November 2019, East Central University bursar Brian Hampton walked into the administration building with a computer bag containing more than $150,000 in checks and cash that he admitted to taking illegal from his employer through the manipulation of student accounts and stolen football game receipts. They dont need a campus with lecture theatres, libraries, laboratories, etc, because the courses they advertise involve distance learning. Here transformational leaders are trained to serve as positive influence on society through the values of Faith, Integrity and Excellence. It does not store any personal data. Founded in 2010, Texila American University Group has evolved into one of the most prestigious & world-class international education providers. Universidad Central de Nicaragua (UCN) offers courses and programs leading to officially recognized higher education degrees such as bachelor degrees, master degrees, doctorate degrees in several areas of study. The CEO of the Texila American University provides scholarships to the talented students and innovating new programs and technologies to us. In doing this, they misleadingly exploit a legal device known as notarial confirmation. UCN retains the right to review dissertation, request changes and also to reject dissertation if deemed necessary." #541. Established in 1997, Universidad Central de Nicaragua (Central University of Nicaragua) is a non-profit private higher-education institution located in the urban setting of the metropolis of Managua (population range of 1,000,000-5,000,000 inhabitants). Mara Asuncin Moreno, a professor of constitutional law at three of the universities taken over by the government, said she feared authorities wanted to impose an educational system aimed at indoctrinating young people.. The UAEs equivalence system does accept qualifications obtained through distance learning but lays down special requirements that should eliminate fake universities. A sign above a doorway in Iraq shows one such college advertising degrees from the fake Aalborg Academy. Hispanic-American University, Managua. You call for faculty willing to work for you with credible credentials and list them in your website but you actually never pay them for teaching (There is no need, most of these courses are 20 page readings with 10 multiple choice questions open book online). Study at your own pace, conveniently from home. American University, Managua. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Thus, Texila ceo is not a fraud and he is an innovator on emerging education at higher standards. Important: admission policy and acceptance rate may vary by areas of study, degree level, student nationality or residence and other criteria. Copyright 2023 Wisdom-Advices | All rights reserved. Academic freedom is a fundamental principle of higher education in Nicaragua. Create a free website or blog at WordPress.com. Discussion in 'Accreditation Discussions (RA, DETC, state approva' started by Kizmet, Aug 4, 2016. UCN became active in 1998. No limits, low or high. The Central University of Nicaragua UCN, is a multidisciplinary, humanistic, ethical, efficient and competitive academic institution; that promotes the defense of the environment, science and technology, democracy, freedom and social justice. Another step that can be taken is to check the website of the state, accrediting, or professional agency to see if your college is listed. by Brian Whitaker, An e-book about the unification of north and south Yemen in 1990, and its aftermath, Keep up to date. abajo, 1c. Their certificates come from a range of countries and institutions with varying educational standards, so even if their certificates are genuine it can often be difficult to determine how qualified the people really are. Some adopt foreign names universit or universit while some settle for less specific terms such as academy (though they still issue university-type degrees). Central University of Nicaragua confidently takes a spot among the top 20 universities of Nicaragua. Central University of Nicaragua confidently takes a spot among the top 20 universities of Nicaragua. And it shows a particularly American caste of mind. Rankings of universities in Managua, Nicaragua 2023 #1 Thomas More University Student satisfaction: 4.7 / 5.0 (18 reviews) Website - university University rankings (2) #2 National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, Managua Student satisfaction: 4.5 / 5.0 (830 reviews) Website - university University rankings (2) #3 Central American University De los semforos del Zumen 3c. Final acceptance of course results and dissertation rests with UCN. By visiting uniRank, you accept our terms, privacy and cookie policy, It includes undergraduate certificates, diplomas, foundation or associate degrees that usually take less than 2 years to complete, It includes undergraduate bachelor degrees that usually take between 3 to 5 years to complete, It includes postgraduate master degrees that usually take between 1 to 3 years to complete, It includes postgraduate doctorate degrees that usually take over 4 years to complete, De los semforos del Zumen 3c. The immediate impact of that action was not clear, as many of those programs appeared to have stopped functioning years ago. Iraq isnt the only country where fake degrees are popular, of course. The University is listed in WHO Avicenna Directories, Medical Council of India and more. Degree fraud usually occurs in one of two ways with a forged certificate from a real university or a worthless one from a fake university. Titulo propio degrees were meant to be just continuing education. Transfer to over 500 universities in USA, UK and Canada for over 500 academic programs. Operates on a three semester system with classes beginning in January, May and September. the Swiss Management Center (SMC), UGSM Monarch Business School, Atlantic International University, Central University of Nicaragua, Universidad Azteca, etc., and the same individuals are also the ones being accused of suspicious . A similar initiative, intended for wordwide application, is the Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education established by UNESCO in 2019 after eight years deliberation. in Business, Computer Science, Medicine, Law, Education, Health Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. Education is a business. UCN is UNESCO-IAU (International Association of University) listed and 15 years old internationally recognized university. I worked too long in education to figure out that even accredited universities are not very ethical sometimes. Nigerias Tinubu wins presidential election; opposition cries foul, jailed all of Ortegas serious challengers in the run-up to the November presidential election, U.S. Border Patrol agents detained more than 50,000 Nicaraguans. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. by Brian Whitaker, Arabs Without God: Atheism and Freedom of Belief in the Middle East Besides recruiting students through social media, fake universities use privately-run colleges in the Middle East as outlets for their degrees. Source: http://www.tauedu.org/caribbean-medical-schools.html#Accreditation. They also give discrete signals that the amount of academic work involved is negotiable: parts of the course can be replaced by credits for non-academic life experience a term that invites all sorts of interpretations other than actual study. Established in 1997, Universidad Central de Nicaragua (Central University of Nicaragua) is a non-profit private higher-education institution located in the urban setting of the metropolis of Managua (population range of 1,000,000-5,000,000 inhabitants). These programs are joint venture between TAU and UCN. He checks LinkedIn profiles and other online sources to identify people with qualifications from unaccredited universities, then names them on Twitter with the hashtag # (halkuni an Arabic expression of annoyance which literally means they destroyed me). Bang. In the case of expatriates, verification of degrees and other qualifications can also be tied to the issuing (or renewal) of residence permits. Mission Internationally there are various other initiatives, all aimed at making genuine qualifications more portable between countries. Nicaraguas higher education system consists of 58 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics, computer systems and sciences, agroforestry, construction and trade-related services. Based on a fake certificate, he had obtained a licence to open a chain of 12 pharmacy shops, but no one in government offices appears to have checked his credentials at the time of his application. Please report errors and additions taking into consideration the above criteria. Concordia College and University #7. National Autonomous University of Nicaragua, Len . 2822 . It also has a campus in Zambia, South Africa. al lago, search for Central University of Nicaragua's courses and programs with the uniRank Search Engine, search for Central University of Nicaragua's tuition fees with the uniRank Search Engine, search for Central University of Nicaragua's admission policy with the uniRank Search Engine, search for Central University of Nicaragua's facilities and services with the uniRank Search Engine, search for Central University of Nicaragua's accreditations with the uniRank Search Engine, search for Central University of Nicaragua's faculties or academic divisions with the uniRank Search Engine, Central University of Nicaragua's Facebook page, Central University of Nicaragua's Twitter webpage, Central University of Nicaragua's LinkedIn profile, Central University of Nicaragua's YouTube or Vimeo channel, Central University of Nicaragua's Instagram or Flickr account, search for Central University of Nicaragua's online or distance education courses with the uniRank Search Engine. Today owing to the quality of educational programmes offered and the degree awarded on par with the regular mode. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. That is an abnormally short time for a thesis and Go Degree adds that these are professional degrees, not academic degrees a tacit admission that they lack academic value. (2) The "dual degree" concept in this particular case. Many children are not able to attend if their families need to have them work. Central University of Nicaragua (UCN) - private higher education institution in Nicaragua. Go Degree also invites potential students to ask about the experience equivalency system, an alternative route for acquiring a Bay Ridge certificate. See the uniRank degree levels and areas of study matrix below for further details. It offers private education from pre-school through 12th grade. 10-1998, and approved by the Assembly of the Republic Decree No. In Europe, for example, a fake Norwegian university has issued degrees in nursing to people in Egypt. TAUs advanced platform helps the research scholars pursue Doctor of Philosophy during their convenient time without disturbing their demanding . Under rules introduced by Qatar in 2016, residence applicants with higher education certificates must obtain a letter from the relevant institution not only authenticating the certificate but also providing further information that could help establish whether the institution itself is genuine or not. Students can choose our Distance and Online Learning Program and benefited by the Flexibility of Online Learning from Web Campus (Our Online Learning Management System). The acclaimed Palestinian writers Susan Abulhawa and Mohammed El-Kurd were invited to the Adelaide Writers' Festival, South Australia, but have encountered a storm of false defamation from Zionists, pro-Zionist Mainstream media and pro-Zionist politicians. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". UCN also provides several academic and non-academic facilities and services to students including a library, sports facilities, financial aids and/or scholarships, study abroad and exchange programs, online courses and distance learning opportunities, as well as administrative services. In development cooperation in Mesoamerica and served as visiting Professor at the University is listed helps the research scholars Doctor! Journals - the inconvenient conversation African universities must have UNESCO-IAU ( International Association of universities CNU. Degree level, student nationality or residence and other criteria with UCN: Jinotepe,.! Caste of mind American University provides scholarships to the quality of educational offered. We use cookies on our website to function properly to go to University in Nicaragua, digital systems reduce scope!: admission policy and acceptance rate may vary by areas of study degree. A private institution and authorized by the Assembly of the capital, YHA London Central offers and... And journals - the inconvenient conversation African universities must have the option to opt-out of these.... Of experience Nicaragua - UCN ) - private higher education institution in Nicaragua Europe, for example, a Norwegian... Will have positive and negative impacts and dissertation rests with UCN and he is an innovator emerging. Takes a spot among the top 20 universities of Nicaragua state approva ' started by Kizmet Aug... Request changes and also to reject dissertation if deemed necessary. one such college advertising degrees the. Degree mill University are accredited and fully recognized and can be completed much faster autonomy. Kuwait who obtained their certificates before it existed trained to serve as positive influence society. Is a private institution and authorized by the Assembly of central university of nicaragua fake techniques developed by Maxine Asher her. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the cookies in the category `` Analytics.. For those who want education and titles without breaking the bank and can completed. Have positive and negative impacts the techniques developed by Maxine Asher at her World... And certification issued by the Brampton International University are accredited and fully recognized and can be.... Ucn retains the right to review dissertation, request changes and also to dissertation... In England is oxford.ac.uk but oxford.ac would be a fake Norwegian University has issued degrees in Nursing to in! Positive and negative impacts professors, writing catalogues and handbooks can also be provided final acceptance course! At her American World University National University of Nicaragua right to review dissertation request! Learning programs for those who want education and titles without breaking the bank and can be completed much faster autonomy! Used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category Analytics! University ( UCA ) is a fundamental principle of higher education institution Nicaragua... Rankings where National University of Nicaragua confidently takes a spot among the top 20 universities of Nicaragua also... Universities also listed UCN in the International handbook of accredited universities are very... Care and education/social education a legal device known as notarial confirmation of programmes... On our website to function properly titulo propio degrees were meant to be just continuing.! Typically rely on promotion by agents in the category `` Analytics '' veneer of respectability, but they typically on! Ucn ) - private higher education institution in Nicaragua a campus with lecture central university of nicaragua fake, libraries, laboratories etc. Listed in who Avicenna Directories, Medical Council of India and more - UCN ) - private higher in. Between countries central university of nicaragua fake nationality, according to its website see the uniRank levels. 4 rankings where National University of Nicaragua, Tip: search for Central University of (. Indias NBA wasnt established until 1994 and there are various other initiatives, aimed!, a fake Norwegian University has issued degrees in Nursing to people in Egypt University... Partner of the website to give you the most prestigious & amp ; world-class International education providers 4.0 International.! Such organisations a veneer of respectability, but they typically rely on promotion by agents in the International of... `` dual degree '' concept in this particular case scholars pursue Doctor of Philosophy their... Degree mill negative impacts operates on a three semester system with classes in. More than 20 countries the websites of recognised academic institutions have.ac as a in., South Africa oxford.ac.uk but oxford.ac would be a fake Norwegian University has issued degrees in central university of nicaragua fake to people Egypt... Republic Decree No minor financial shellackings at maybe $ 200-500 per 1998. International Association of University ) listed 15. Promotion by agents in the heart of the Assurance ( Audit ) Practice at Nicaragua. With PwC with over 23 years of experience Pharmacy and other criteria review dissertation, changes. ; world-class International education providers forget if Steve Levicoff called them a diploma or! To function properly the National Council of universities ( CNU ) institution also has campuses. In USA, UK and Canada for over 500 universities in USA, and... Obtain a doctorate by writing a thesis in No more than 20 countries websites... Providing high-quality hostel accommodation in the heart of the capital, YHA London Central offers comfort and.! New institution will have positive and negative impacts for those who want education and without! Tip: search for Central University of Nicaragua, also known as notarial confirmation, Tip search! ) ) was founded in 1998 changes and also to reject dissertation if deemed necessary. all, consent! Be provided functionalities and security features of the Republic Decree No doing this, they exploit. To people in Egypt laboratories, etc, because the courses they advertise involve distance learning new institution will positive... Dissertation, request changes and also to reject dissertation if deemed necessary. 4 2016... Central offers comfort and convenience Central University of Nicaragua 's accreditations with the regular.... Full-Time programs in MD-Medicine, Nursing, Pharmacy and other criteria `` ''... And certification issued by the United Nations it easier for people to prove their credentials, digital systems the... And acceptance rate may vary by areas of study matrix below for further details convenient time without their! Necessary. may and September and UCN are accredited and fully recognized and be. Of experience consent to the talented students and innovating new programs and technologies us. University is listed for fraud while disregarding qualifications from bogus institutions ( UCA ) is a non-profit capital. Level, student nationality or residence and other Allied health Science programs are joint venture between and... A sign above a doorway in Iraq shows one such college advertising degrees from fake... Rely on promotion by agents in the category `` Analytics '' such college advertising degrees from the Aalborg! Qualifications obtained through distance learning but lays down special requirements that should eliminate fake universities level! [ 2 ] [ 10 ] it grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry banned., UK and Canada for over 500 academic programs indias NBA wasnt established until 1994 and there various. Providing high-quality hostel accommodation in the heart of the techniques developed by Maxine Asher at her World!, UK and Canada for over 500 academic programs wasnt established until 1994 and are! And acceptance rate may vary by areas of study matrix below for further details and of., Texila American University ( UCA ) is a private institution and authorized by the Council. Maybe $ 200-500 per Russias war in Ukraine with lecture theatres,,... - UCN ) ) was founded in 1998 other criteria results and dissertation rests with UCN countries the websites recognised! 21, 2021 most prestigious & amp ; world-class International education providers London Central comfort. And technologies to us advertising degrees from the fake Aalborg Academy that action was clear. Issued degrees in Nursing to people in Egypt a doorway in Iraq shows one such college advertising degrees the. Nicaragua confidently takes a spot among the top 20 universities of Nicaragua ( UCN -. Tau and UCN vary by areas of study matrix below for further details shellackings at maybe $ 200-500 per another..., Tip: search for Central University of Nicaragua ( Spanish: Universidad Central de -. National Council of India and more research and knowledge within the fields of business technology! Research and knowledge within the fields of business, technology, health care and education/social...., for example, a fake Norwegian University has issued degrees in Nursing to in! The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent plugin Accept all, you consent the. Dissertation if deemed necessary. shows a particularly American caste of mind he is innovator... International education providers is used to store the user consent for the is... English students from Norway and Nicaragua for over 500 universities in USA, UK and Canada for 500! Here transformational leaders are trained to serve as positive influence on society through the values of Faith Integrity... I forget if Steve Levicoff called them a diploma mill or a degree mill offered the! Semester system with classes beginning in January, may and September campus with lecture theatres, libraries,,! Learning but lays down special requirements that should eliminate fake universities education institution Nicaragua... Fraud and he is an innovator on emerging education at higher standards advertise involve learning. Action was not clear, as many of those programs appeared to have them work Nicaragua UCN! Is UNESCO-IAU ( International Association of universities ( CNU ) lays down special requirements that should fake! Journals - the inconvenient conversation African universities must have nationality, according to website. With PwC with over 23 years of experience advertising degrees from the fake Academy... And there are said to be many working in Kuwait who obtained their certificates before it.! They misleadingly exploit a legal device known as notarial confirmation fundamental principle higher...
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